
tKeacfjerg College 
Columliia Winibtx^iitp 



Democracy and Nationalism 
in Education 

Syllabus and Readings for a Course in History 

of Education from the French Revolution 

to the Present Time 



By EDWARD H. REISNER, Ph.D. 

Lecturer in the History and the Philosophy of Education 
Teachers College, Columbia University 

with an Introduction by 

PAUL MONROE, LL.D. 

Director of the School of Education, and Professor of History 
of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University 



Teachers College Syllabi, No. g 



Published by 

^tatf^txi College, Colum&m tHnibets(itp 

525 West I20th Street 
New York City 



MAR 28 1919 




5 College Syllabi, No. g 



tKeacfjerg College 
Columliia SainibersJitp 



Democracy and Nationalism 
in Education 

Syllabus and Readings for a Course in History 

of Education from the French Revolution 

to the Present Time 



By EDWARD H. REISNER, Ph.D. 

Lecturer in the History and the Philosophy of Education 
Teachers College, Columbia University 

with an Introduction by 

PAUL MONROE, LL.D. 

Director of the School of Education, and Professor of History 
of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University 



Published by 

tE^eacijerg College, Columbia ^niber^itp 

525 West i20th Street 
New York City 



Copyright, 1919, by Teachers College, Columbia University 






ICI.A515()0 7 



im 28 iy!9 



xi_ ^ <i 



INTRODUCTION 

The growth of nations has been the conspicuous poHtical fea- 
ture of modern times, and the problems of the relation of educa- 
tion to this development have become obvious during the nine- 
teenth century. 

The earliest stage of political development occurred with the 
fixing of tribal groups in a definite habitat. The earliest form of 
this was the city state with its environing dependencies. These 
early states looked upon all other groups as hostile and unworthy 
of existence, except as they -became subordinated. This incor- 
poration was usually accomplished by force, which process 
tended to destroy the distinctive cultural features of the minor 
groups. In other words, the groups expanding by military power 
led by dynastic ability 'and ambition looked upon political organ- 
ization as all-inclusive. With the Roman Empire this tendency 
became substantially a reality. With the Christianization of 
the Roman Empire the ecclesiastical ideal and pretention paral- 
leled the political one and both became coterminous with 
civilization. This belief in the universal scope of political 
organization constituted in form the world's political theory 
long after the actual conditions were changed. The Holy Roman 
Empire which expressed this theory in the early modern period 
was only destroyed by Napoleon in 1804. The chief force in 
rendering this organization a mere form was that of growing 
nationalism. 

From very early days certain groups, especially the English, 
had grown up in isolation. Over these the Holy Roman Empire 
had possessed only the most nebulous authority. From the 
twelfth to the sixteenth century both the English and the French 
groups, and to a less extent the German and Italian, through 
internal conflict, developed a local consciousness which more 
and more gave a distinctive character to each group. The orig- 
inal tribal groups which had entered into the composition of these 
dawning national groups were marked by distinct racial char- 
acteristics. Through internal conflicts, through migration, through 
conquest and the merging of conqueror and conquered, in time 

3 



these developing national groups came to represent the accom- 
plished amalgamation of many tribal or racial strains. In fact, 
the strongest of these early nationalities, the English and French, 
represented the fusion of most diverse elements. 

Thus early became distinct the three great factors determining 
modern nationalities, namely, blood relationship or race, habitat 
or geographical environment, and culture. Culture in this sense 
means common ideals, common traditions, habits and aspira- 
tions. A number of other specific characteristics are often urged 
as essential to nationality, such as common language, common 
religion, common laws, but there is no one characteristic except 
that of a common culture which may be posited but what excep- 
tions may be found. The one most commonly given, that of 
race, cannot be accepted, for every European nation represents a 
great mixture, and the United States has become the greatest 
mixture of all. Nor, on the other hand, can such great admixture 
of racial groups be made an essential, for there are illustrations 
of the opposite as in the case of Japan. A compact habitat is a 
usual characteristic, but there are exceptions as in the case of 
Greece, now struggling for national realization, or that of the 
British Empire. It cannot be maintained that common language 
is an essential, for there is the case of Switzerland with its three 
languages. Common religion, for a period believed to be essen- 
tial, was responsible for the many wars of the sixteenth and 
seventeenth centuries; but strong national states have developed 
in spite of internal differences of religious belief. Common laws 
cannot be held as essential for federal states are based on the 
recognition of a diversity of laws. 

Modern history since the fifteenth century has been essen- 
tially the story of the struggle for national realization. This long 
struggle has brought a growing recognition that a common cul- 
ture, that composite of common habits, ideals and purposes, is 
the one essential characteristic of nationality. Most modern 
wars, especially of Europe, have been caused by the violation of 
this principle. This was particularly true during the nineteenth 
century because most international settlements, particularly 
those made by the Congress of Vienna in 1816 and by the Con- 
gress of Berlin in 1878, resulted in gross violations of that prin- 
ciple, in favor of other principles usually based on arbitrary force. 
In a very true sense, then, the great war is but a readjustment of 

4 



the evils produced by the imperfect and unjust settlements made 
at the close of the Napoleonic struggle. 

From the late eighteenth century the element of common cul- 
ture has become the dominating one in the conception of nation- 
ality. This has resulted in the recognition of two fundamental 
and correlated truths: First, common culture is a trait which 
transcends social, religious, and economic distinctions, and its 
recognition transfers the seat of national existence from dynas- 
ties or bureaucratic legal institutions supported by military force 
to the masses of the people. Second, the discovery was made 
that common culture was an artificial product and could be 
manufactured. The process of this manufacture is by education. 
From one point of view then the nineteenth century is the period 
of national development, working towards the democratic inter- 
pretation of the problem of nationality and using education as a 
means. 

The first people consciously to apply this method of education 
to the determination of nationality was the German. Beginning 
near the middle of the eighteenth century, or even earlier, with 
special groups, and after 1809 very definitely for the whole group, 
this people before the Napoleonic wars organized into more than 
one hundred independent nations has gradually amalgamated 
into one. The limitation to this development of a German nation 
as we see it now is that the Germans retained along with this 
democratic conception of nationality the old dynastic and 
predatory one. The latter has now been eliminated, in part at 
least, and it remains to be seen what the former may accomplish. 

Other European nations, more favorably situated in regard to 
other factors in nationality, or relying more upon the older 
interpretations of national strength, recognized more tardily the 
importance of education as a means of developing national unity 
and power. Even the United States has depended more on 
geographical environment, racial selection, political institutions 
and common language than upon consciously developed cultural 
unity. While in the early national period the importance of 
education to the successful workings and perpetuation of free 
institutions was commonly recognized, yet a wholly individualis- 
tic interpretation of education was practised. 

Practically all modern nations are now awake to the fact that 
education is the most potent means in the development of the 

5 



essentials of nationality. • Education is the means by which 
peoples of retarded cultures may be brought rapidly to the com- 
mon level. Education is the means by which small or weak 
nations may become so strong through their cultural strength 
and achievements that their place in the political world may be 
made secure. Education is the means by which nations, strong 
in the strength of the past, may go through the perilous transition 
to the modern world, as has Japan and as will Russia. Education 
is the only means by which the world can be "made safe" for the 
national type of organization. 

Thus the history of nationality during the nineteenth century 
is closely bound up with the problems of education. And, on the 
other hand, the education of the present may find an interpreta- 
tion of all of its problems, whether of purpose, of subject-matter, 
of organization, or even of method in terms of nationality. 

The purpose of this course is to trace the practice of leading 
modern nations in the use of education as a factor in developing 
nationality. 

Paul Monroe 



DEMOCRACY AND NATIONALISM IN EDUCATION 

Syllabus and Readings for a Course in History of 

Education from the French Revolution 

TO THE Present Time 

By EDWARD H. REISNER, Ph.D. 

Lecturer in the History and the Philosophy of Education, Teachers College 

I. The French Revolution: Its Educational Promise 
and Achievement 

The French Revolution (a) destroyed the old regime of abso- 
lute monarchy and class privilege, (b) announced a liberal pro- 
gram of democracy, (c) achieved much less than universal democ- 
racy, namely, middle-class participation in political life, and {d) 
consolidated national feeling in France and brought out the 
principle of a citizen army. In the field of education the period 
of the Revolution is responsible for setting forth the conception 
of national democratic education in such true and liberal lines 
that the nineteenth century realized almost entirely the radical 
prophecies of the late eighteenth. Owing to the power of his- 
torical forces and current political and economic instability, the 
educational achievement of the Revolution was much less than 
its promise. 

1. Political and economic inequality and injustice of the pe- 
riod immediately preceding the Revolution. 

References: Brief accounts are to be had in the following: West.i Modern 
History, 303-323; Robinson,' History of Western Europe, 537-557; Robinson 
and Beard, 1 The Development of Western Europe, I, 203-223. More extended 
accounts may be found in Hayes,' A Political and Social History of Modern 
Europe, I, 395-426, 449-461; Mathews,' The French Revolution, i-iio; The 
Cambridge Modern History, VIII, 1-144; Lowell, The Eve of the French 
Revolution. 

2. The Estates General and the National or Constitu- 
ent Assembly, May 5, 1789-September 14, 1791. 

{a) The National Assembly abolished the old system of 
absolute monarchy, economic restriction and class privilege and 

1 All later references to this work are indicated only by the name of the author. 

7 



established a limited constitutional monarchy. The right to 
vote and to hold office was limited by financial considerations, 
thus securing the political supremacy of the middle class. The 
Declaration of the Rights of Man, made a part of the Constitu- 
tion, is a general charter of democratic rights. 

References: Brief accounts in West, 323-336; Robinson, 561-573; 
Robinson and Beard, I, 224-247. More extended accounts in Hayes, I, 464- 
486; Mathews, 111-181; Cambridge Modern History, VIII, 145-210. 

(&) The Constitution of 1791 declared for a universal system of 
education. In the last days of the National Assembly, Talley- 
rand presented a bill providing for a comprehensive system of 
public instruction. The bill may be regarded as moderate- 
liberal in tone and reflects the political opinion of the Assembly. 

Sources: Translation of extracts from Talleyrand's Education Bill of 
1 79 1, Bryson Library. 

References: Compayre, History of Pedagogy, 362-378; Compayre, 
Doctrines de V Education en France, II, 250-272; Simon, V Instruction Popu- 
laire en France, 3-21. 

3. The Legislative Assembly, October i, 1791-September 
21, 1792. 

(a) Owing to the activity of the radical elements in the elections 
of 1 791 to the Legislative Assembly, the number of radicals 
in the legislative body was out of all proportion to radical senti- 
ment in France at large. The deliberations of the Assembly were 
also greatly influenced by the activities of the Parisian mob and 
this increased the radical tendencies of that body. Treason with- 
in France and foreign aggression from without, with both of 
which Louis XVI was shown or was thought to be connected, led 
to his deposition and the automatic downfall of the constitution 
of 1791. 

References: Brief accounts in West, 336-347; Robinson and Beard, I, 
249-264. More extended accounts in Hayes, I, 486-500; Mathews, 182-206; 
Cambridge Modern History, VIII, 211-244. 

(&) During the closing days of the Legislative Assembly, a bill 
providing for a national system of education was introduced by 
Condorcet. It reflects the extreme republicanism of the Giron- 
dists. While it was hardly suitable for the France of that day, it 
constitutes a prophecy, surprisingly accurate in many of its 
details, of the provisions for universal education which were to 
become the actualities of the late nineteenth century. As a 
theory of democratic education it has substantial validity to-day. 

8 



Sources: Condorcet, Rapport et Projet de Decret sur V Organisation General 
de V Instruction Publique, edited by Compayre. Translated extracts from the 
same, Bryson Library. 

References: Compayre, History of Pedagogy, 379-389; Compayre, 
Doctrines de I'Education en France, II, 273-290; Simon, L Instruction Populaire 
en France, 21-35. 

4. The Convention, September 22, 1792-October 26, 1795. 

(a) Again the radical temper of the leading parties of the Con- 
vention failed to represent the essential conservatism of France. 
The contest for control between the two radical parties, the Gir- 
ondins and the Mountain, resulted in the supremacy of the latter. 
It was during the period of Montagnard control that the Terror 
was established as the government of France. The Mountain 
broke up into factions and destroyed itself, after which the con- 
servative spirit of the majority of the members of the Conven- 
tion asserted itself. Reaction from the radicalism of the Terror 
was rapid and resulted in the establishment of a middle-class 
constitution, resembhng closely in its suffrage provisions that of 
1791. 

References: Brief accounts in West, 347-356; Robinson, 582-591; 
Robinson and Beard, I, 264-282. More extended accounts in Hayes, I, 
500-512; Mathews, 207-285; Cambridge Modern History, VIII, 244-275; 
338-397- 

{b) The main educational interest of the radical phase of the 
Convention was in elementary schools. Extreme opposition de- 
veloped to any forms of higher education whatsoever. The most 
extreme proposal made during this period was that of Lepelletier 
le Saint-Fargeau to establish a system of education modeled 
closely after that of ancient Sparta. The triumph of the conserv- 
ative elements was marked by a return to comprehensive systems 
of education and by the establishment of numerous important 
special schools of higher instruction. The bill of Daunou, 
introduced October 27, 1795, neglected primary education and 
favored the institutions that would be of use to the middle class. 

Sources: Translation of extracts from Daunou's Law relating to Primary 
Education, Bryson Library. 

References: Compayre, History of Pedagogy, 390-412; Compayre, Doc- 
trines de I'Education en France, II, 291-321; Simon, L' Instruction Populaire 
en France, 35-52; Drury, L' Instruction Publique et la Revolution, 134-143. 



II. The First Empire in France and Education as a Tool 

OF the Government 
Napoleon was primarily interested in upper-class education 
and did practically nothing to improve educational opportunities 
for the common people. He wished to see the competitive field 
opened to talent. According to the plan which developed under 
his guidance, all educational activity was to be carried on under 
the supervision and control of the university, which thus had a 
true monopoly in education. The university was a teaching 
organization with a well-defined objective, namely, the support of 
the Napoleonic system and the Empire. The university pro- 
duced in France of Napoleon's time a degree of centralization and 
governmental domination in educational affairs never surpassed 
there or elsewhere. 

Sources: Translation of extracts from the Napoleonic Decrees concerning 
Education, Bryson Library. 

References: Brief accounts of the Napoleonic era are to be found in 
West, 363-383; Robinson and Beard, I, 309-342; Hayes, I, 523-576. Neglect 
of Primary Education: Compayre, History of Pedagogy, 513. The Monopo- 
listic University: Compayre, 510-512; Farrington, French Secondary Edu- 
cation, 66-69; Aulard, Napoleon I et le Monopole Universitaire; Liard, UEn- 
seignement Superieur en France, II, 65-124; Kilian, U Instruction Secondaire 
en France, 85-138. 

III. The Regeneration of Prussia and the Development 

OF a Complete National System of Education 

I. By the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) Napoleon deprived Prussia 
of nearly half her territory and population and laid heavy 
financial indemnities upon her. This humiliation was the in- 
spiration of efforts in every field of life to reestablish Prussia. 
The ancient feudal restrictions upon person were removed ; cities 
were given a measure of local autonomy; the army was reestab- 
lished on new lines; education of the people was fostered ; higher 
education was greatly improved. The War of Liberation (1813- 
1 8 14) was the expression of a new national spirit, which carried 
Germany far in educational, literary, philosophical, scientific 
and economic progress. 

Sources: Fichte's Reden an die Deutsche Nation; Fichte, translation of 
extracts from Addresses to the German Nation, Reisner and Raynor, Bryson 
Library. 

References: Good general accounts are to be had in Cambridge Modern 
History, IX, 324-336; Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Generate, IX, 595-621; 
Hayes, I, 555-557- 

10 



2. The Development of a Universal, Compulsory, 
State-controlled System of Primary Education. 

During the period now under consideration the movements 
of the eighteenth century in the direction of a state-controlled 
and universal system of primary schools in Prussia were greatly 
strengthened, and the primary system of education was brought 
to a high degree of efficiency. A bureau of education was erected 
in the ministry of the interior in 1807 and a separate department 
for education was created in the ministry for religion, education, 
and medical affairs in 181 7. By 1825 a hierarchy of educational 
authorities and divisions extending from the communities to 
the central government had been established, together with 
adequate means for school inspection. Great strides were taken 
during this period in the training of teachers in seminaries. 
A rich and varied curriculum for the primary schools was put 
into effect. 

Sources: Siivern's sketch of a General Education Law, translation, Bryson 
Library; Cousin, Public Instruction in Prussia, translated by Austin; Stowe, 
The Prussian System of Public Instruction; Horace Mann, Seventh Annual 
Report, 19-35; 54-5; 84-142. 

References: Paulsen, German Education, 236-245; Alexander, The 
Prussian Elementary Schools, 22-39; Lewin, Enwicklu7tg der Preussischen 
Volkschule, 155-220; Kandel, Training of Elementary School Teachers in 
Germany, 10-13. 

3. The New Humanism and the Reform of the Gymnasium. 

In 1810 an official state examination for candidates for teach- 
ing positions in the secondary schools was made compulsory. 
In 1812 the leaving examinations were reformed, with the effect 
of standardizing secondary education. The curriculum of the 
Gymnasium was modified according to the spirit of the New 
Humanism, then in the ascendancy in German intellectual cir- 
cles. The new curriculum laid strong emphasis upon Latin, 
Greek, German, and mathematics, with considerable attention 
to geography, history, religion, and natural science. 

References: Russell, German Higher Schools, 76-101; Paulsen, German 
Education, 197-205; 212-213; Paulsen, Geschichte des Gelehrten Unterrichts, 
513-670. 

4. Non-classical and Semi-classical Secondary Schools. 

Reference: Paulsen, German Education, 212-213. 



IV. The Search for Methods of Teaching Consistent with 
THE Principles of Democracy 

1. Pestalozzi. Pestalozzi was confronted with the problem 
and inspired by the hope of raising a subservient, poverty- 
stricken, shiftless, ignorant, immoral peasantry and working 
class into a folk morally, economically and intellectually sound 
and independent. He was a pedagogical theorist, but that only 
in order to be a social reformer. He sought for a school experi- 
ence that would make of the pupil an intelligent individual. 
Hence he provided an expanded curriculum and sought to pro- 
vide a school regime that would cause the materials of instruction 
to become constituent forces of the child's intelligence and moral 
character. Pestalozzi's influence is seen only in contrast with the 
lifeless and repressive school practices of his times. The spirit 
of Pestalozzi was in a measure transferred to the Prussian semina- 
ries and the Prussian system of primary schools, and from them 
to the healthy imitations that found place in France, America, 
and England. 

References: The sociological interest of Pestalozzi is best shown in his 
Leonard and Gertrude. It should be read entire. The student will probably 
get a better understanding of Pestalozzi's teaching method through secondary 
works than through his own writings. The following are suggested as serving 
for a brief study: Monroe, Text Book, 587-622; Parker,^ History of Modern 
Elementary Education, 273-313; 323-374; Bachman, "The Social Factor in 
Pestalozzi's Theory of Education," Education, Vol. XXII, 402-414. For more 
extended reading, the student is referred to the bibliographies contained in 
Parker. 

2. The Fellenberg Movement represents the continuation 
of the more strictly sociological phase of Pestalozzi's work by 
one of his disciples. 

References: Parker, 313-321; GvdiY&s,,^ History of Education in Modern 
Times, 153-163. 

3. Herbart. Herbart's main educational objective was the 
development of character. Fundamental to his principles of 
method is his psychology, which seeks to exhibit the specific 
connection between ideas and conduct. His psychology repre- 
sents an attempt to break away from the current faculty psychol- 
ogy; and, while it in turn has been superseded by a functional 
description of mental processes, it is sufftciently true to experi- 
ence so that the Herbartian analysis of the learning process can 

2 All later references to this work are indicated only by the name of the author. 



be carried over with little loss to that analysis which rests upon 
a more valid psychology. Herbart attempts to describe the 
method of developing a man who will make sound moral judg- 
ments out of the rich stores of a well-filled mind, and who will 
carry those judgments out into good acts. His connection with 
the New Humanism is important. 

References: A good description of the Herbartian psychology is given in 
Schwegler, History of Philosophy, 283-285. Herbart's own account of his 
theories of method is best had from his Outlines of Educational Doctrine. 
Good secondary accounts are to be found in Monroe, Text Book, 622-639; 
Parker, 375-429. For more extended bibliography see Parker, 429-430. 

4. Froebel. The sociological significance of Froebel is all too 
frequently lost sight of in the metaphysical haze in which his 
educational practices were enveloped. Froebel lived in the 
intellectual atmosphere of German romantic philosophy. If one 
discredits romantic philosophy, one does not believe in the meta- 
physical implications of Froebel's practices. Fortunately, 
romanticism is the spiritual forbear of evolutionism, and much 
of the emphasis placed by Froebel on growth, self-activity, play 
and socialization is in accord with our best contemporary thought. 
Froebel saw, with Pestalozzi, the necessity of forming a new 
generation of men, and recognized with him the rights of the 
child. In order to accomplish the first-named end, the child 
must be rescued from a period of early neglect or evil influence 
and given the proper start. Seen from another angle, this 
means that human life is a precious something which may not 
be wasted nor malformed. Froebel's educational objective is 
the improvement of the human social order through the enrich- 
ment of human individuality. His special emphasis upon the 
early years of childhood is only a corollary of his main theorem. 

Sources: Froebel, The Education of Man. 

References: Monroe, Tex^ 5oo;fe, 639-667; Parker, 431-486; MacVannel, 
The Educational Theories of Herbart and Froebel, 80-117. For more extended 
bibliography see Parker, 484-486. 

V. Political Reaction in Europe after 1815 and Its Effect 

ON Education 

I. England. While England's political institutions during 
the last half of the eighteenth century and up to 1832 were nomi- 
nally representative and democratic, they were extremely aristo- 
cratic and unrepresentative. It has been estimated that 1,500 

13 



persons controlled a majority in the House of Commons. Not 
only were the great mass of people without voice in the govern- 
ment, but the new capitalistic class and the great industrial cities 
as well were politically unrecognized. After the Congress of 
Vienna a strong tide of Tory reaction set in. This influence pre- 
vailed up to the time of the Franchise Act of 1832. 

References: Hayes, I, 430-440; II, 28-37; Hazen,' Europe since 1815, 
406-430. 

Educational conditions reflected the conservatism of political 
conditions. Primary education was left entirely to private 
initiative and philanthropic activity. As providing educational 
opportunities for large numbers at small cost, the monitorial 
system of instruction had wide development. The Liberal 
interest in the education of the people and the efforts of Liberal 
leaders to secure parliamentary action did not achieve any 
success until 1833. 

References: Philanthropic efforts in primary education: Birchenough, 
A History of Elementary Education in England, 1-6 1; 210-249; Monroe, 
Text Book, 724-727; Graves, 49-75; Parker, 226-236. 

Liberal English thought and parliamentary activity during this period 
are described in Birchenough, reference given above, and De Montmorency, 
Progress of Education in England, 66-73. 

2. France. The Restoration government was essentially a 
continuation of the institutions of the Empire. Suffrage was 
enjoyed by the wealthier citizens and the government was con- 
stitutional. It is after 1815 that the industrial revolution made 
itself felt in France. The University was continued without 
essential change. Primary education was largely neglected, 
although gradual improvement took place up to 1830. The 
period is marked by philanthropic and religious activity in 
primary education and the use of the monitorial system {instruc- 
tion mutuelle). The state of public education in 1833 is shown 
in the report of Lorain mentioned below. 

Sources: Lorain, Tableau de V Instruction Primaire en France; translated 
extracts from same in Bryson Library. 

References: Political and economic conditions: Hayes, II, 14-20; 
Robinson and Beard, II, 1-6; West, 406-411; Hazen, 66-99. Educational 
conditions: Arnold, Popular Education in France, 41-48; Simon, V Instruction 
Populaire en France, 65-76; Compayre, History of Pedagogy, 513-519; Greard, 
Education et Instruction, 35-64; Farrington, French Secondary Schools, 70-71. 

' All later references to this work are indicated only by the name of the author. 

14 



3- Germany. The nearest approach to German national unity 
before the time of Bismarck was the Federation of 1815. No 
change toward popular representation took place until 1848. 
The feudal restrictions had been removed, but no progress was 
made in the direction of democratic representative institutions. 
The conditions of primary and secondary education during this 
period have been sufficiently described above. (See the Regenera- 
tion of Prussia). During this period university freedom was 
greatly restricted. 

See Carlsbad Resolutions, Robinson, Readings in Modern European History, 

n. 547-550- 

References: Political conditions, Robinson and Beard, II, 12-17; West, 
392-396; Hayes, II, 41-44; Hazen, 28-44. 

VI. Limited Democracy in the United States and Half-way 

Measures of State Intervention in Education, 

1789 TO ABOUT 1828 

We have seen that the first steps in the direction of democracy 
in Europe went only so far as to secure political representation 
for the wealthier minority of the population. In the United States 
during the first thirty years of national existence the same atti- 
tude toward the mass of the people prevailed and property re- 
strictions upon the right to vote were the rule. The same dis- 
trust of popular sovereignty was shown in the "filtration" plan 
of electorates. The conception of education as the means of 
forming a nation had not been realized. Moderate provisions for 
elementary education had been made in most states of the 
union either through private initiative with some state aid, or 
through the parochial plan of organization, or through public 
support and control, as in Massachusetts. The establishment 
of "literary" funds, the granting of state subsidies, the setting 
aside of state land for educational uses, the formation of charity 
school societies and systems of "pauper schools" were all half- 
way recognition of the obligation and desirability of free, uni- 
versal, public education and paved the way to that development. 
This was the period of vogue of the monitorial system in the 
United States. 

In secondary education, the academy largely displaced the 
Latin grammar school of the earlier period. 

References: Historical background: Wilson, Epochs of American History, 
Division and Reunion, 2-21; Schouler, History of the United States, II, 235- 

15 



238; III, 44-47, 507-531. General educational conditions: Parker, 240-271; 
Graves, 78-119. For accounts of the development in the early states see 
articles in Cyclopedia of Education on education in the various states. Acade- 
mies: See Cyclopedia of Education, article "Academies," sub-topic, "In Amer- 
ica"; Brown, The Making of Our Middle Schools, 179-278; Monroe, Principles 
of Secondary Education, 54-63; Inglis, Principles of Secondary Education, 
170-184. 

VII. The Industrial Revolution 

The industrial revolution was caused by the application of 
steam-power to machinery. "Its two basic elements were: (i) 
the invention and application of machines and engines to facili- 
tate mining, manufacturing, agriculture and transportation, 
(2) the building of factories." The industrial revolution had 
transformed England by 1825. It greatly changed conditions in 
France between 18 15 and 1830. Its influence was strongly felt 
in the United States after 1830. Germany was afi'ected by it 
after 1840, but the full influence of the movement was not felt 
there until after 1870. 

The immediate social effects were {a) to produce a new 
capitalistic class distinct from the landowning and commercial 
aristocracy of the eighteenth century, (&) to establish a hard 
and fast line between employer and employees, (c) to bring into 
existence a proletariat which could scarcely aspire to entrance 
into the class of capitalists, {d) to increase the self-consciousness 
of the working class, leading them to form labor unions in the 
interest of collective bargaining and causing them to aspire for 
political representation so as to be able to improve their con- 
dition. 

The political changes that resulted from these altered social 
conditions are the materials for a political history of the nine- 
teenth century and are the principal concern of contemporary 
domestic politics, (i) The first political effect was the recogni- 
tion of the new class made wealthy through manufacture. This 
took place in England in 1832; and the resulting reorganization 
of political power remained in force until 1867. This is the 
period known as the "Victorian Compromise." The same po- 
litical change took place in France in 1830 and may be said to 
have continued with ups and down until 1870. The agitation for 
popular political representation an^ constitutional government 
resulted in a short-lived and specious success in Prussia in the 

16 



Constitution of 1848. The gains of 1848 were more apparent 
than real, however, as the constitutional forms gave no real 
representation in face of the high-handed and repressive tactics 
of the Government. (2) The second and longer delayed political 
effect in Europe was the admission of the working classes to 
participation in government. This achievement represented the 
conclusion of the "Victorian Compromise" in England in 1867. 
Further extension of the suffrage occurred in 1884 and again in 
1918. Manhood suffrage was achieved in France in 1871, but 
has been realized in Prussia, representative of Germany as a 
whole, only at the present time. 

The industrial revolution may be seen to have had important 
bearings on the development of primary education, for with the 
extension of the suffrage it was recognized that there must be 
more adequate provision for the preparation of the new citizens 
for the duties of citizenship. It is also seen that the application 
of science in manufacture and the need for modern languages for 
the transaction of international business would have its effect 
upon the curriculum of the schools intended for the education of 
the commercial classes. This influence was definitely felt about 
the middle of the century in the three European countries dis- 
cussed above. The new needs of instruction for the efficiency 
of the workmen under the new industrial regime resulted in the 
development of various forms of vocational education. 

References: Robinson and Beard, II, 30-52; Hayes, II, 67-97; Cheyney, 
Social and Industrial History of England, 199-239. 

VIII. Modified Democracy in England (1832-1867) and the 

Beginnings of State Intervention in Education 

(1833-1870) 

I. The period was one marked by important social reforms. 
While the franchise of 1832 included only the well-to-do classes, 
the extension of the suffrage held out hope for its further exten- 
sion among those social classes as yet without the vote. Agitation 
for a more liberal franchise was almost continuous until it was 
realized in the Act of 1867 and carried further in the Act of 1884. 
Conditions of factory labor were greatly ameliorated. Slave 
labor in the colonies was abolis^ied. The Poor Laws were re- 
formed. 

References: Hayes, II, 100-116; Hazen, 439-464. 

17 



2. Primary Education. During this period we have the be- 
ginnings of state intervention in education in England. Educa- 
tion came to be thought of as a poHtical right and necessity in- 
stead of as a charity to be extended to the poor. Beginning with 

^a parliamentary grant of £20,000 in 1833, to be administered by 
the Treasury, the financial aid of the state to education in- 
creased until in 1861 it amounted to £800,000. The state worked 
through existing educational societies during this period. The 
halfway participation of the state was due not so much to the 
lack of interest in the matter of education as to the irreconcilable 
dififerences that developed in regard to the part to be played in 
the schools by the religious bodies. 

Within this period several important landmarks may be 
pointed out. In 1838, a report was made by a Select Committee 
on the Education of the Poorer Classes which showed the great 
need of education. In the year following, a Committee of 
Council on Education was established. The policy of this 
committee was to regulate the conditions of grant in the interest 
of better school facilities. In 1846 the pupil-teacher system was 
inaugurated and the financial conditions of the teachers were im- 
proved. After 1847 extensive supervision was exercised over all 
schools receiving state aid through a system of inspection. In 
1856 an Education Department was formed. The Report of the 
Newcastle Commission in 1861 showed that more needed to be 
done for the improvement of educational conditions. The answer 
of the government was the Revised Code of 1861, which intro- 
duced a system of payment of state aid by results. 

It is during this period that the influence of Pestalozzi on 
school-room practice made itself felt in England. 

Sources: Report of the Newcastle Commission, 1861; Revised Code of 
1 861, Education Department Reports, 1 861-1862, pp. XV-XLIV. 

References: Birchenough, History of Elementary Education in England, 
62-128; 250-284; De Montmorency , Progress of Education in England, 74-141; 
Sandiford, Training of Teachers in England and Wales, 42-51; Kay-Shuttle- 
worth. Four Periods of Public Education; Roberts, Education in the Nineteenth 
Century, 41-47. 

3. Secondary Education. The second quarter of the cen- 
tury saw a great change in the spirit of the Public Schools under 
the leadership of men like Thomas Arnold and later, Thring. 
However, the curriculum was hardly modified until after the 
reports of the Great Commissions of Clarendon and Taunton in 



1864 and 1867 respectively. A great lack of vitality in existing 
secondary schools was shown by these reports and a decided 
disparity between secondary school opportunities and social 
needs. The rich were provided with good secondary schools, 
but the great middle class was practically without the means of 
secondary education. Matthew Arnold conducted a persistent 
campaign for educational opportunities for the middle class. 
Some science instruction was provided through the activities of 
the Science and Art Department, established in 1852 and co- 
ordinated with the Education Department in 1856. The agita- 
tion for increased recognition of the sciences in education is well 
shown in some of the writings of Spencer and Huxley. 

Sources: Report of Public Schools Commission, 1864; Report of Schools 
Inquiry Commission, 1867. 

References: Rouse, History of Rugby School, 220-274; Findlay, Thomas 
Arnold, 44-121 ; Roberts, Education in the Nineteenth Century, 59-66; Arnold, 
Culture and Anarchy; Spencer, Education, I; Huxley, Science and Education; 
Arnold, Schools and Universities on the Continent, 257-270. 

IX. The Upper-Middle-Class Monarchy in France, and 

THE Establishment of a State System of Primary 

Schools, i 830-1 848 

1. The Revolution of July, 1830, was in support of middle 
class political privilege and constitutional government against 
the attempts at usurpation of Charles X. There was, however, 
a strong liberal tone to the early years of the new reign which 
carried through important educational reforms. The failure of 
the people at large to secure any political advantages out of the 
Revolution of 1830 caused continual agitation on their part and 
repressive tactics on the part of the government. Business pros- 
perity was the guide of domestic and foreign policy, and during 
these eighteen years of the government of "big business" France 
grew in wealth. The conditions of the working classes were ex- 
tremely bad and their efforts to secure reform were met by 
violence. The Revolution of 1848 was a direct effort of the un- 
represented portions of the population to secure the ballot. 

References: West, 413-417; Hayes, II, 94-95, 11 6-1 23; Hazen, 1 14-144. 

2. Primary Education. The "July Monarchy" established 
for the first time by the Law of 1833 a national system of primary 
education in France. What had formerly been optional with the 
communes was now made compulsory, and each commune was 

19 



/ 



made to provide and support, with departmental and state aid 
where necessary, at least one primary school. It was also made 
obligatory upon chief towns of departments and other communes 
of which the population exceeded six thousand, to maintain higher 
primary schools which provided an extension of education, not 
to include the study of the learned languages. The teacher's 
minimum salary and residence were to be provided by the com- 
munes and the supplementation of this minimum was to take 
place out of school fees. A rigid system of certification was 
established and the support of normal schools was made obliga- 
tory upon departments. The actual condition of teachers was 
unsatisfactory owing to the low fixed minimum salary. Poor 
children were to receive primary schooling, according to the law, 
without cost. 

Sources: The Law of 1833, translation, Bryson Library. 

References: Arnold, Popular Education in France, 49-59; Compayre, 
History of Pedagogy, 519-522; Farrington, Public Primary School System of 
France, 147-155. 

3. Secondary Education. The university monopoly of 
higher education was continued throughout the period of the 
July Monarchy but was overthrown by the Revolution of 1848. 
The dominant element in secondary education was the study of 
the classics, but the curriculum was greatly enriched through the 
addition of mathematics, science, modern languages and history. 

References: Farrington, French Secondary Schools, 71-73. 

X. The Second Republic and the Second Empire in France, 

1848-1870, AND THE Rejuvenescence of Church 

Influence in Education 

I. Primary Education. The radicalism of the Parisian work- 
ingmen and journalists, which brought about the overthrow of 
the July Monarchy, was greatly modified by the conservatism 
of the provinces. France was not in favor of the socialism of Le 
Blanc, and the middle class soon controlled the government. 
The teachers of France had supported the radical element in the 
revolution of 1848 and they felt the disapproval of the govern- 
ment when a general reorganization of the system of education 
was contemplated on the basis of a report of a general commission 
(1849). The training of the teachers in the normal schools was 
condemned as being too ambitious and was cut down in 1851 



to practically the curriculum of the primary schools. The 
religious congregations engaged in teaching were shown great 
favor. Compare with the change in Prussian education in 1854. 
(See below.) The law of 1850 created a strongly centralized sys- 
tem of educational organization. Free education of the poor was 
continued, but the number of free places was restricted. Per- 
mission was given to communes to establish entirely gratuitous 
schools. This practice became more and more common up to 
1881, when primary instruction was made free to all. The 
higher primary schools of the Law of 1833 were discontinued, 
but an extended curriculum was made optional for the com- 
munal schools. The increased liberalism of the government 
after i860 is shown in greater interest in the normal schools and 
public education. 

Sources: The Law of March 15, 1850, translation, Bryson Library. 
The Law of April 10, 1867, translation, Bryson Library. 

References: Political and Social Developments: West, 417-430; Hayes, 
11,150-163; Hazen, 187-214; 272-301. Educational Developments: Arnold, 
Popular Education in France, 60-174; Farrington, Public Primary School 
System of France, 156-162. 

2. Secondary Education. The period from 1830 to 1870 in 
France was one of great economic and industrial growth. It came 
to be felt that the sciences, which were so important in commerce, 
were not receiving the attention they should receive in secondary 
schools. In 1852 the curriculum of the lycees was changed by the 
introduction of more science. The student was given a choice 
between a continuation for the upper part of the course of the 
study of classics, and a program of scientific studies. The latter 
program was the natural path to technical studies in the univer- 
sity. In 1864, a return to a single course was made, but the 
course was far less strictly classical than before the change of 
1852. At the same time "special" or "modern" secondary instruc- 
tion which stressed scientific studies, was developed for the needs 
of those who contemplated technical careers. 

References: Farrington, French Secondary Schools, 74-78- 

XI. Mid-century Reaction in Germany and Its Effects 

ON Public Education, i 840-1 870 

I . The disappointment of the liberals of Prussia over the failure 

to secure the promised constitutional forms of government after 

18 15, caused a rigorous agitation for more liberal political insti- 

21 



tutions. This became more insistent with the accession of 
Frederick William IV in 1840 to the throne of Prussia. The 
success of the radical elements in Paris in 1848 called out a 
similar demonstration in Berlin with the result that a constitu- 
tion was granted in 1850. By this time the forces of conservatism 
and reaction had regained the upper hand and the constitution 
granted, while liberal in form, was extremely undemocratic in 
reality. For details see references given below. During the 
years following the accession of William I as king of Prussia, 
through his minister Bismarck, the autocratic powers of the 
government were practically unlimited. 

Nothing was done during this period for democratic liberties, 
but much was done for the formation of a strong German state. 
The spirit of nationalism was stronger than the spirit of democ- 
racy in Germany and through ruthless means forged a strong 
empire of German-speaking peoples. 

References: West, 449-456; 466-478; Robinson and Beard, 86-89; 
109-123; Hayes, II, 123-144; 180-206; Hazen, 145-152; 183-186; 240-271. 

2. Primary Education. The Prussian government believed 
that the political disturbances of the period were traceable to the 
too ambitious efforts of the seminaries and the folk-schools. 
The political reaction which followed the events of 1848 laid 
hands upon the seminaries and limited their curricula and their 
activities to the substance of primary education. A very specific 
and limited objective was prescribed for the seminaries and for 
the folk-schools. The religious element in education was greatly 
stressed. 

Sources: The Regulations of 1854, translation in part, Bryson Library. 

References: Paulsen, German Education, 245-251; Alexander, Prussian 
Elementary Schools, 39-43; Kandel, Training of Elementary School Teachers 
in Germany, 13-15. 

3. Secondary Education. The repressive policy of the gov- 
ernment was felt in the attempt to narrow the curriculum of the 
Gymnasium to Latin and to give the school a strong religious 
tendency. But this attempt to constrict the curriculum of the 
Gymnasium only revealed more clearly the strong demand for 
scientific studies, and it was found desirable to recognize a 
semi-classical, or Realgymnasium, in the Order of Studies of 
1859. The scientific tendency in secondary education received 



further recognition in the First Grade Non-classical School 
{Realschule I. Ordnung) in 1859. 

References: Paulsen, German Education, 205-206; 214-215; Russell, 
German Higher Schools, 101-105; Paulsen, Geschichte des Gelehrten Unterrichts, 
671-755- 

XII. The Triumph of Democracy in American Political Life 
AND State Control and Support in Education 

1. Democracy modified by property or other qualifications for 
the suffrage gave way in general during the second and third 
decades of the nineteenth century in favor of manhood suffrage. 
The new influence was felt in political and economic policies and 
found a very definite response in educational concerns. 

References: Wilson, Epoch Series, Division and Reunion, 1 02-1 15; John- 
son, Union and Democracy, 298-316. 

2. The Development of Free State School Systems was 
stimulated by the common school revival in New England. 
Under the leadership of Carter, Mann, and Barnard, the schools 
of the New England states were greatly improved. More money 
was expended on the schools; better buildings and equipment 
were provided; better salaries were paid to teachers; better 
preparation was exacted of them and normal training facilities 
were provided ; the curriculum was expanded and better methods 
were introduced following the practices of Pestalozzi. The im- 
provement in the common schools at this time is traceable to the 
continental example, particularly of Prussia. The movement for 
school improvement spread from the New England states over 
the entire union and resulted in the establishment of free state 
systems everywhere. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, 734-739; Graves, 165-189; 256-273; 
Parker, 256-271. 

For developments in separate states see articles in Cyclopedia of Education. 
See Cyclopedia of Education on the development of compulsory attendance 
and the progress in methods of training of teachers. The influence of Pesta- 
lozzi, Herbart, and Froebel, as it developed in this country, may be seen in 
the accounts of these men in Monroe, Graves, and Parker. 

3. The Development of the American High School. The 
democratic change in American political life carried with it 
agitation for free education of a grade beyond the elementary 
school. The response to this demand was the American high 
school, with free tuition and a relatively advanced curriculum. 

23 



While not as ambitious in curriculum as the European secondary 
schools, it represented the American intention of providing free 
higher schooling. In conjunction with free tuition in the state 
universities, American practice is a literal fulfilment of Con- 
dorcet's plan for free instruction in all grades of lower and 
higher schools and universities. 

References: Monroe, Principles of Secondary Education, 60-68; Brown, 
The Making of Our Middle Schools, 297-321; 347-368; Inglis, The Rise of the 
High School in Massachusetts; Inglis, Principles of Secondary Education, 184- 
200. 

XIII. The German Empire, 1870-1918: A Dynastic and 

Military Regime in Full Control of Highly 

Developed Agencies of Education 

I. The successful wars of 1864, 1866, and 1 870-1 871 led 
the German people to accept national success in place of demo- 
cratic institutions. Under the control and guidance of a highly 
efficient central administration, Germany began after 1870 an 
economic and industrial development unsurpassed, even un- 
equalled, by any country in Europe for a similar period. Govern- 
ment subsidies aided the growth of industries and public utilities. 
Government pensions and various measures in the interest of the 
workingman enabled the government to secure the allegiance of 
the laboring class. In connection with the phase of national 
character shown in the new industrial regime, one must have in 
mind the fact that the greater portion of Prussia, which was the 
controlling force in the Empire, is made up of large agricultural 
estates which reproduce with little change all the characteristics 
of medieval feudalism. The political conservatism of feudal 
Prussia has acted as a check upon the democratic tendencies of 
industrial Prussia and thus upon the more liberal south German 
states, such as Bavaria. Dynastic and nationalistic ambition 
combined with commercial needs has fostered the spirit in 
Germany which led her to carry war upon the rest of Europe in 
1914. With the collapse of her military power, the democratic 
forces which in other countries have accompanied the industrial 
revolution seem to have asserted themselves. 

References: Hazen, 303-328; Hayes, II, 397-426; Veblen, Imperial 
Germany and the Industrial Revolution, 145-270; Robinson and Beard, II, 
130-150; West, 478-494. 

24 



2. Primary Education. The new regulations for seminaries 
and folk schools in 1872 reveal a new tendency in German ele- 
mentary education. The reactionary policy of 1 840-1 872 had 
been based upon fear of a broad and generous curriculum and 
had attempted to limit severely the materials of instruction. 
After 1872, the Government reestablished a rich curriculum in 
both elementary schools and seminaries. The emphasis remained 
strongly dynastic and nationalistic. The primary schools were 
intended for the highest possible intellectual, economic and social 
development of an unprivileged political class that was consistent 
with the continuation of the existing political arrangement. 
Loyalty to the crown, love for the fatherland, suspicion and fear 
of hereditary national enemies, belief in German institutions and 
culture, were made positive and specific objects of instruction. 
The Government could provide a relatively rich type of instruc- 
tion because it thoroughly controlled the entire social situation 
and made the primary schools minister to the perpetuation of the 
existing order of things. The extensive development of forms of 
vocational education to serve as a completion of primary educa- 
tion and to provide an advantageous entry of the boy upon a 
vocation, is further evidence of the far-sighted adaptation of 
educational means to ends which the Empire achieved. 

Sources: The Regulations of October 15, 1872, English Special Reports, 
I, 470-480; Alexander, The Prussian Elementary Schools, 43-52; Perry, 
German Elementary Education, 94-116; 194-213. 

References: Russell, "Education for Citizenship," Teachers College Record, 
March, 1916; Paulsen, German Education, 251-261; Alexander, The Prussian 
Elementary Schools, 324-348; 392-451; Scott, Patriots in the Making, 155-192; 
Kandel, Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany, 15-18. 

3. Secondary Education. The chief development of the 
secondary schools under the Empire was in the direction of better 
adaptation of the curriculum to modern German needs. Secon- 
dary education remains in Germany, as it has always been, the 
privilege of the well-to-do, and is closely related to entrance into 
professional and official life. The Berlin Conference of 1890 and the 
young Emperor William the Second's address on that occasion 
are indicative of the efforts to secure a type of secondary educa- 
tion that would further nationalistic aims and serve as a con- 
servative social force. The changes introduced into secondary 
education by the Reform of 1901 placed the classical, semi- 
classical and non-classical schools on an equal footing. The 

25 



present progressive thought on German education looks to the 
estabUshment of a connection between primary and secondary 
schools so as to break down the caste system. 

Sources: "The German Emperor's Address at the Berlin School Confer- 
ence of 1890," Educational Review, I, 200-208; Report of United States Com- 
missioner of Education, 1890, I, 359-363. 

References, Russell, German Higher Schools, 105-107, 121-137, 227-244, 
291-31 1 ; Paulsen, German Education, 206-211; 215-232. 

XIV. The Third Republic in France and the Achievement 

OF A Complete National and Democratic System 

OF Education, 1870 

1. The Franco-Prussian War resulted in the sudden and 
complete defeat of France. The conquerors compelled the 
cession to Germany of Alsace and Lorraine and laid an indemnity 
upon France of $1,000,000,000. For a number of years a dead- 
lock ensued between the various parties over the form of govern- 
ment which was to be set up. In 1875 a compromise constitution 
was established which was democratic in form and spirit, but it 
was only in 1879 that acute danger from a monarchist reaction 
was past. Following that time a succession of constructive laws 
increased the democratic nature of French institutions. The 
strong sympathy of the Church for a monarchistic government 
brought down upon it the opposition of the Republicans. This 
opposition is clearly shown in the educational legislation of the 
eighties. The religious question was again brought up by the 
Dreyfus affair and further radical action was taken against the 
Church by the Government in the first decade of the new century 
in the abolition of the Concordat and the suppression of teaching 
congregations. 

References: West, 430-447; Robinson and Beard, 151-179; Hayes, II, 
331-367; Hazen, 329-375- 

2. Primary Education. A universal system of free primary 
schools was established by the law of June 6, 1881. At the same 
time all religious teaching was forbidden in the schools. The place 
of instruction in religion, which had been universal in French 
primary schools throughout the century, was taken by regular 
instruction in morality and civics. Compulsory attendance was 
enacted in 1882. The present organic law of French primary 
education was passed in 1886 and it provided not only for 
laicity of instruction, but for laicity of teaching personnel also. 

26 



Thereafter no religious was to be allowed to be a teacher in a 
French public primary school. However, with certain restrictions 
of government supervision, private elementary schools were 
allowed. These were mainly in the hands of teaching congrega- 
tions of men and women. It was in 1904 that all teaching 
congregations were suppressed by law. France has provided a 
general system of industrial training connecting with the last 
years of the primary schools. The higher primary schools and 
cours complementaires offer higher educational opportunities to 
those who are unable to attend secondary schools. 

In France, as in Germany, the curriculum of the lower schools 
has had a strong nationalistic bent. 

Sources: Laws of June 6, 1881, March 28, 1882, October 30, 1886, and 
luly 17, 1904. Translation of extracts from these laws may be had in Bryson 
Library. 

References: Good extended account in Farrington, The Public Primary 
School System of France; article, "France, Education in," Cyclopedia of Edu- 
cation; Scott, Patriots in the Making, 3-154. 

3. Secondary Education. Under the Third Republic, the 
French tradition of centralization of control and uniformity of 
practice has been worked out in the sphere of secondary educa- 
tion. By a reorganization of 1902, the modern side of secondary 
instruction received equal rank with the classical, but the 
curriculum of secondary education remains in general strongly 
classical in France. The secondary schools of France are in- 
tended for the upper economic classes and are mainly attended 
by the youth of those classes. 

Reference: Farrington, French Secondary Schools, 78-83; 84-102. 

XV. English Democracy and Educational Developments 

SINCE 1867 

I. The Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884 practically, though 
not perfectly, achieved universal manhood suffrage in Great 
Britain. The Act of 1885 corrected some of the inequalities of 
representation in Commons. The democratic tendency shown in 
these acts of Parliament is further exhibited in factory and mine 
acts for the protection of workers in industry and for the elimina- 
tion of early-childhood labor. The Boer War (i 899-1 902) was 
influential in putting new life into the Liberal party and providing 
it with a broad humanitarian program. From 1906, a Liberal 

27 



coalition was continuously in power until the outbreak of the 
Great War. It has put through a great deal of democratic and 
humanitarian legislation including a graduated income tax, an 
inheritance tax, luxury taxes, a minimum wage for miners, work- 
men's compensation, old age pensions, national insurance and 
additional legal rights for trade unions. The important educa- 
tional changes that are representative of the same spirit will be 
taken up below. It may be said that Great Britain is to-day in 
the midst of profound social changes as indicated by the Fran- 
chise Act of 1918, and the Fisher Education Act of 1918. 

References: Hayes, II, 277-319; Hazen, 497-597; "Program of the 
British Labor Party," supplement to New Republic, February 16, 19 18. 

2. Primary Education. The extension of the suffrage by the 
Act of 1867 immediately brought up the question of better edu- 
cation for the newly enfranchised voters. Investigations showed 
the altogether inadequate provision for public education made by 
the existing system. A new act, that of 1870, continued the 
grants to the voluntary school associations and set up alongside 
of the voluntary schools a system of Board schools, supported 
out of public taxes and administered by ad lioc elective bodies. 
The increasing cost of education and the superior resources of 
the tax-supported schools showed in the course of time the ina- 
bility of the voluntary system to maintain itself. In 1902 the 
state assumed full control of public education by abolishing the 
school boards and school attendance committees and placing both 
voluntary and rate-aided schools under the local education 
authorities. County and county-borough councils were made the 
local education authorities for elementary and higher education, 
and councils of non-county boroughs and urban districts of a 
given population were made the local authorities for elemen- 
tary education. Free elementary schooling was practically 
achieved in 1891. Successive acts in 1876, 1880, and 1893 were 
designed to improve attendance. In 1899 a central Board of 
Education was provided. The "New Liberalism" is reflected in 
the Act of 1906 allowing local authorities to levy a rate for the 
provision of free meals to indigent children; in the Act of 1907 
providing medical examinations and vacation schools and play 
centers; and in the Children Act of 1908, putting greater responsi- 
bility upon the local authorities in regard to school attendance 
and children in reformatory institutions. The highest educational 

28 



achievement of all is the Fisher Act, 191 8, which has established 
a truly national system of democratic education. 

Sources: The Act of 1870, Education Department Reports, 1 870-1 871, pp. 
XXI-LII; the Act of 1902, Drury's Manual of Education, 161-206, or Barlow 
and Macan, The Education Act of igo2, 96-161 ; the Act of 1918, Administra- 
tion Seminar. 

References: Birchenough, History of Elementary Education in England, 
129-209; 285-373; De Montmorency, Progress of Education in England, 
142-202; Jackson, Outlines of Education in England, 52-90; Kandel, "Educa- 
tional Progress in England," Educational Review, December, 1918. 

3. Secondary Education. The establishment of a public 
system of secondary schools in England was not legally possible 
before the Act of 1902 which gave county and county-borough 
councils the right to set up secondary schools. Conditions in the 
private secondary school foundations had been greatly improved 
by the Endowed Schools Acts (i 869-1 874). The Department 
of Science and Art had been giving aid to schools and classes for 
the teaching of scientific and technological subjects, thus foster- 
ing some instruction of secondary grade. Liberal definition of 
"technical instruction" enabled the Science and Art Department 
to apply large funds granted by the Technical Instruction Act 
(1889) and the Local Taxation Act (1890) to the teaching of all 
subjects except the classics. Further provision of secondary 
instruction was made by school boards out of local rates until 
1 90 1, when it was judged to be illegal in the Cockerton Case. 
By the Act of 1902, local authorities were given power to supply 
the existing deficiencies of secondary instruction and to co- 
ordinate the existing factilities. Great Britain has not adopted 
the principle of universally free secondary education, but has 
endeavored to eliminate inequalities of birth and wealth, as far 
as they affect secondary school attendance, by the system of 
scholarships. 

Sources: Act of 1902, see above; Act of 1918, see above; Report of the 
Bryce Commission, 1894-1895. 

References: Jackson, Outlines of English Education, 91-124; Roberts, 
Education in the Nineteenth Century, 67-81; Monroe, Principles of Secondary 
Education, 1 22-1 41. 



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